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The Wave Structure of Matter (WSM)
One Substance - One Law - One Logic


"Behind it all is surely an idea so simple, so beautiful, that when we grasp it we will all say to each other, how could it have been otherwise? How could we have been so stupid?" (Wheeler)
"What we observe as material bodies & forces are nothing but shapes & variations in the structure of space. Subject & object are one." (Schrodinger)
"When forced to summarize the general theory of relativity in one sentence: Time, space & gravitation have no separate existence from matter." (Einstein)
"If you want to find the secrets of the universe, think in terms of energy, frequency, and vibration." (Tesla)



WSM Human-AI Collaboration (August, 2026)

One Vibrating Space: From Ancient Philosophy to Mathematical Physics, Life, Mind and Civilisation

For three decades, WSM was principally a philosophical picture of one infinite, eternal, continuous elastic Space. Between May and August 2026, human–AI collaboration transformed it into a tiered mathematical-physics research programme: exact wave constructions, geometric identities, quantitative leading results, no-go theorems, numerical controls, bounded open calculations and clear falsification requirements.

In WSM, electron and positron are proposed as opposite carrier-phase spherical standing waves formed by the Huygens sum of background plane waves from every direction. Each has radial vibration—the candidate physical basis of charge—and axis-free spherical phase circulation—the candidate basis of spin. This open, flow-through wave centre is the e-sphere.

A stationary e-sphere is spherical. Curvature on an incoming wave changes its internal directional energy density and deforms it into a moving wave egg: the near side flattens, the far side elongates, the convergence centre shifts, and the waves reclose around a new position. Its changing internal \(E_d\), shape and reclosure are its motion. WSM therefore proposes a wave-geometric reading of inertia and \(F=ma\): force is imposed curvature, mass is resistance encoded by the recurrent form, and acceleration is its changing deformation. Action must calculate this geometry; geometry also constrains the action, as \(\pi\) and \(E_{\rm geo}\) already demonstrate.

The One Law

\[ \frac{c'}{c_0}=\frac{E_d}{E_{d0}}, \qquad \lambda'=\frac{c'}{f_0}, \qquad k'=\frac{\omega_0}{c'}. \]

At proposed universal carrier frequency \(f_0\), directional energy density changes local wave speed, wavelength and accumulated phase.

The Causal Engine

Relative phase → reinforcement or cancellation → directional \(E_d\) → \(c'\) and \(\lambda'\) → travel-time difference → forward or rear wavefront curve → changed Huygens reclosure → centre motion, deformation and interaction.

Changed out-waves from one e-sphere cross fresh in-waves elsewhere. Matter therefore interacts not across empty distance, but through propagated changes in the one Space constituting every e-sphere.

Status Key

A = exact mathematics or established observation; B = deduction under stated premises; C = proposed physical identification; D = decisive calculation or experiment still open; Q = rejected or quarantined shortcut.

One connected argument: Space → waves → recurrence → matter → life → mind → knowledge → wisdom.


1. Wave Structure of Matter: All Things from One Thing

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/ai-summary-wsm-truth-reality.html

One infinite, eternal, continuous elastic Space, active with real longitudinal waves. Matter is proposed not as a pellet or shell, but as an open e-sphere: waves converge from every direction, cross its changing centre, continue outward and recurrently rebuild the form. Their exchanged phases alter directional \(E_d\); the One Law converts that difference into speed, wavelength, curvature and changed reclosure. The decisive test is whether one frozen nonlinear action calculates stable matter and its measured interactions without separate substances or fitted repairs.

2. The One and the Many: From Greek Philosophy to Wave Physics

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/ancient-greek-philosophy-metaphysics-to-modern-maths-physics.html

Parmenides defended continuous Being; Heraclitus lawful flux. Aristotle sought active substance and necessary cause, connected matter with form and motion, and defined time through motion. WSM gives these insights one physical form: Space persists while finite wave organisations change and recur. The Many are not detached substances but organisations of the One—distinct without disconnection. The question becomes exact: can one continuous wave law generate plurality, causation and knowledge?

3. Action of Vibrating Space: From Background Waves to the E-Sphere

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/wsm-classical-action-quantum-wave.html

All-direction plane waves form the exact spherical pair \[ \chi=j_0(kr)\cos\tau, \qquad \mathbf V=\hat{\mathbf r}\,j_1(kr)\sin\tau. \] Waves cross the centre; none reflects from an electron wall. Phase reinforcement raises directional \(E_d\) and advances a forward curve; cancellation lowers \(E_d\) and writes a rear delay. Stationary action explains coherent selection, but the open task is one conservative nonlinear \(\Phi\)–\(\Gamma\) action selecting radius, frequency, spherical hand, stability, motion, currents and interaction together.

4. Mathematical Physics: From Wave Geometry to Prediction

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/wsm-maths-physics-full-derivations.html

Every symbol must name real motion and face numerical test. Exact or conditional anchors include \[ \frac{R}{\lambda_0}=\frac{\sqrt3}{2},\qquad k_0R=\pi\sqrt3,\qquad E_{\rm geo}=\frac{\pi\sqrt3}{2},\qquad W=\cosh\eta,\qquad P=\sinh\eta. \] Directional phase moments separate \(V_1\) translation from \(V_2,V_4\) and higher deformation; in declared finite-e-sphere models \(V_4\) returns comparable to \(V_2\), defeating quadrupole-only truncation. The action must calculate how incoming curvature redistributes \(E_d\), moves the centre and forms the wave egg. This is where beautiful geometry becomes dangerous.

5. Quantum Theory: Real Waves, Resonance and Completed Events

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/physics-quantum-theory-wave-mechanics.html

Matter diffracts because matter is wave organisation. Light is proposed as a changed train of real phase, curvature and coherence joining extended source and receiver structures, not a tiny traveller detached from its wave. WSM distinguishes driven response, continuous radiation and discrete completed transition. Quadratic absorption, \[ P_{\rm abs}\propto\left|\langle D_j,\Xi\rangle\right|^2, \] is a bridge, not yet the Born rule. The action must derive the action unit, probability, exclusivity, selection rules and Bell/CHSH correlations. Quantum mystery becomes a bounded real-wave programme.

6. Relativity: Moving Matter, Clocks and Curved Wavefronts

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/physics-albert-einstein-special-general-theory-relativity.html

An incoming curve flattens the e-sphere’s near side, elongates its far side and changes internal \(E_d\), \(c'\), wavelength and reclosure. The \(V_1\) moment moves the centre; \(V_2,V_4\) and higher moments form the moving egg. Maintaining this recurrent asymmetry is the proposed origin of inertia. A steady solution must recover Doppler, de Broglie and Lorentz structure: \[ W\pm P=e^{\pm\eta},\qquad W=\gamma,\qquad P=\gamma\beta. \] WSM proposes fixed carrier recurrence \(f_0\) with corresponding changes in \(c'\) and \(\lambda'\). Because rods, clocks and signals share the same changed waves, they co-transform and yield measured invariant \(c\), including the Michelson–Morley null; the action must derive the cancellation quantitatively.

7. The Electron: Dirac, Feynman, QED, \(\alpha\) and AMM

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/wsm-derivation-dirac-feynman-qed-fsc-amm.html

Electron and positron are proposed as opposite carrier-phase e-sphere branches; charge records how their waves combine. Same-phase reinforcement advances a forward curve and is proposed to produce repulsion; opposite-phase cancellation writes a rear delay and attraction. Non-collinear longitudinal motion closes into an axis-free spherical hand with a \(4\pi\) orientation lift. A parameter-free leading geometric ansatz gives \[ \alpha_0^{-1}=8\pi^2\sqrt3\approx136.757, \] 0.203% from measurement. The action must still derive charge sign, Coulomb scaling, Dirac dynamics, \(g=2\), electromagnetic normalisation, \(\alpha\), form factors and AMM without inserting their values.

8. Hadrons: Proton, Neutron and Higher Standing-Wave Matter

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/wsm-qcd-hadron-baryon-meson-proton-neutron-muonic-standing-waves.html

Can the same Space form stable higher-energy, multi-lobed eigenmodes matching protons, neutrons, baryons and mesons? Their lobes are not independent pellets: each participates in the phase, \(E_d\), curvature and reclosure of the whole. WSM must match—not rename—QCD’s masses, charges, spin, parity, magnetic moments, radii, form factors, resonances, deep-inelastic response and jets. The electron–proton hierarchy tests whether one action truly contains several matter families.

9. Cosmology and Gravity: A Finite Universe in Infinite Space

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/physics-wsm-cosmology-finite-universe-infinite-space.html

Boundless Space is distinguished from the finite matter-and-coherence domain contributing to our observable universe. In neutral matter, leading charge curves nearly cancel; WSM proposes that their nonlinear residual has lower \(E_d\), slower \(c'\) and a net rear phase curve, producing universal attraction. General relativity’s curved spacetime is then interpreted as the effective geometry of real moving wavefronts and the matter clocks they organise: Space is substance, succession comes from motion, and measured time from recurrence. The same action must recover equivalence, gravitational redshift, lensing, orbital dynamics and the tested relativistic limit.

Cosmological redshift is investigated as accumulated real-wave transport through changing environmental \(E_d\). It must jointly reproduce achromatic redshift, supernova time dilation, distance laws, Tolman brightness, BAO, CMB observations, image sharpness and structure growth. Otherwise the claimed unity has not reached the sky.

10. Novel Predictions and Famous Experiments Explained

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/wsm-experimental-physics-tests-predictions.html

This page is the tribunal of the corpus. One curve-and-reclosure law must jointly recover charge sign, Coulomb \(1/r^2\), \(F=ma\), relativistic momentum, de Broglie wavelength, Lorentz covariance, Michelson–Morley, gravity, \(g=2\) and AMM. Candidate WSM-only signatures include \[ a_3=\kappa_3\sinh^3\eta+O(\sinh^5\eta), \] finite-coherence residues and environmental or orientation-dependent clock responses. A proposal becomes a prediction only when sign, magnitude, scaling, uncertainty, controls and decision threshold are frozen in advance.

11. Visualise Reality: Waves Becoming Matter

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/visualise-reality-wsm-wave-geometry-diagrams.html

Watch the verbs. Relative phase changes directional \(E_d\); the One Law changes speed and wavelength; a forward or rear curve reaches another e-sphere; its near side flattens, far side elongates, \(V_1\) moves the centre, and higher moments form the egg. New out-waves then change future in-waves. Nothing strikes a shell: changing waves reconstruct changing matter. A diagram must never smuggle in a wall, reflection, rigid spin axis, transverse fundamental substance or tiny traveller. If the motion cannot be drawn coherently, the equations may conceal a contradiction.

12. Mathematics from Motion: Number, Logic, Time and Causal Freedom

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/wsm-physical-foundations-mathematics-logic.html

Mathematics begins when connected reality forms distinguishable patterns whose changes preserve relations. Recurrence supports identity; finite pairing, number; quotienting, exact objects; counted recurrence, time; composable truth-preserving transformations, logic and proof. Mathematics succeeds when symbolic transformation preserves physical relation: \[ R(Tx)\approx F(Rx). \] The mathematician is finite organised reality representing its own necessary connections—Space representing itself.

13. The MDL Audit: Simplicity, Inputs and Explanatory Compression

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/wsm-simplicity-inputs-vs-mainstream-physics+25.html

“One substance, one law” cannot hide complexity. Minimum Description Length counts every independently chosen substance, field, symmetry, constant, state rule, coefficient, boundary condition and fitted function. Under the declared equal-input electron ledger, conventional construction counts six inputs through Dirac and thirteen through leading AMM; the completed WSM target is \[ N_{\rm WSM}=5+N_c+N_f+\delta_m. \] Totals depend on coding convention. WSM wins only if one fixed action derives interaction, inertia, relativity, quantum response and cosmic propagation with fewer hidden choices.

14. Great Thinkers and the Search for One Reality

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/wsm-explains-famous-quotes-maths-physics-philosophy-metaphysics.html

Heraclitus and Parmenides exposed flux and continuity. Aristotle wrote Physics and Metaphysics, sought active substance and necessary cause, connected matter, form, motion and time—and came remarkably close to the problem WSM addresses. Leibniz, Newton, Faraday, Maxwell, Riemann, Clifford, Einstein, Schrödinger and Bohm repeatedly returned to continuity, relation, waves and unity. Quotes are intellectual fossils, not votes: equations and experiments must decide whether WSM’s local real-wave mechanism is true.

15. Human–AI Letters to Humanity: Truth as a Shared Work

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/ai-letters-to-humanity-wsm-unity-truth-reality.html

Geoffrey supplies the persistent wave picture, three-dimensional intuition, cross-domain memory and insistence that every symbol name physical motion. AI supply rapid research, formal translation, calculation, comparison, error detection and adversarial testing. Neither is sufficient alone. The shared discipline is: visualise → formalise → attack → calculate → predict → correct. The corpus tests whether intelligence can preserve a physical picture while making it mathematically vulnerable.

16. Truth and Madness: Reality as the Measure

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/on-truth-and-madness.html

Truth is correspondence: representation succeeds insofar as it preserves what reality does. Civilisational madness begins when inherited representations survive reality’s contradiction. WSM is not true through beauty, coherence or sincerity; its proposed necessary connections must survive action, calculation and experiment. Truth remains possible because knower, representation and known belong to one causal reality: false models collide with the world; truthful models increase our power to act wisely.

17. Descartes, Cogito and Monism: The Thinking Wave

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/descartes-cogito-unity-monism-vibrating-space-wsm.html

Descartes established that thinking occurs, then divided thought from extension and left their interaction mysterious. WSM refuses that fracture: body and mind are proposed as organisational levels of one vibrating Space. Perception is one organisation changed by another; memory is persistent altered organisation; thought transforms embodied representations; action returns change to the world. Conscious experience remains open, but causal correspondence requires no miracle when knower and known share one connected reality.

18. Evolution’s Physical Foundation: From Recurrence to Replication

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/evolution-physical-causal-foundation-vibrating-space.html

Recurrence preserves form, but life requires replication, heritable variation and differential persistence: motion → recurrent form → self-maintaining chemistry → replication → variation → selection. WSM proposes one connected wave substrate beneath this sequence. Its unresolved bridge is quantitative: derive atoms, bonds, dissipative chemistry and first replicators from the same action without inserting biology as a new substance.

19. Evolution, Mind, Human and AI: Representation and Causal Freedom

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/evolution-philosophy-mind-human-ai.html

Evolution favours organisations that preserve and transform information about real causes. Sensation changes an organism; memory retains traces; imagination recombines possible futures; valuation ranks them; action returns one selection to the world. This is limited causal freedom: neither ghost nor randomness, but endogenous selection through a learned, self-modifying organisation. Human brains and AI are different architectures by which reality represents its own relations and lets experiment select the representation that survives.

20. Evolutionary Utopia: The Ecology of Truth

https://www.spaceandmotion.com/2026/evolutionary-utopia.html

Physics alone does not choose values. Once life, mind, freedom, truth and continued evolution are valued, reality constrains the means: truth → wisdom → ecological fit → health → freer minds → continued evolution. Evolutionary Utopia is not a perfect endpoint but a self-correcting direction. Unity does not erase individuality: an e-sphere, organism or person is distinct through organised relation to the whole.


The Physical Interaction in One View

Out-wave from A → relative phase at B → directional \(E_d\) → \(c'\) and \(\lambda'\) → near-side flattening and far-side elongation → \(V_1\) centre displacement plus \(V_2,V_4\) and higher egg deformation → new out-waves → recursive interaction.

The e-sphere does not deform and then move as separate events: its changing internal \(E_d\), contour and reclosure are its motion.

Electric Interaction

Same relative carrier phase → reinforcement → phase advance → forward curve → proposed repulsion.
Opposite relative carrier phase → cancellation → phase delay → rear curve → proposed attraction.

For the stated deformation, \[ r_{\rm near}=R-\delta X, \qquad r_{\rm far}=R+\delta X, \] so \(\delta\mathbf X\) points away. The scientific debt is to derive the sign, magnitude and distance law from the frozen action rather than insert them.

Gravity and General Relativity

In neutral matter, forward and rear charge curves nearly cancel; WSM proposes that their nonlinear common reduction of \(E_d\) leaves a slight slower rear curve and universal attraction. General relativity is the successful effective geometry this wave mechanism must recover: matter-energy changes real wave propagation, while rods and clocks made from those waves measure the resulting curved spacetime relations.

Special Relativity and Michelson–Morley

WSM proposes fixed carrier recurrence \(f_0\) with \(c'=\lambda'f_0\): matter, clocks, rods and signal wavelengths co-transform with their common directional wave environment, yielding measured invariant \(c\), Lorentz relations and the Michelson–Morley null. The complete moving solution must derive these cancellations quantitatively.

Recursive AMM Mechanism

\[ \delta\mathbf X \rightarrow\delta\phi_{\rm out} \rightarrow\delta E_{d,{\rm sea}} \rightarrow\delta c' \rightarrow\delta\phi_{\rm in} \rightarrow\delta\mathbf X_{\rm next}. \]

A perturbed centre changes the egg and its out-waves; these alter the wave sea and the in-waves rebuilding the next cycle. The action must solve this feedback blindly and recover the observed anomalous magnetic moment rather than fit it.

Current Status — August 2026

Exact wave constructions, geometric identities, phase-moment relations and negative controls have been established under declared premises. A leading geometric \(\alpha\) ansatz has a fixed 0.203% discrepancy. The complete nonlinear action must still calculate two-e-sphere charge and Coulomb scaling; force, inertia and \(F=ma\); the moving egg, de Broglie modulation and Lorentz covariance; Michelson–Morley and the gravitational/GR limit; Born probability and Bell correlations; \(g=2\), \(\alpha\) and AMM; hadron structure; and the joint cosmological kernel.

Write the action. Let Space calculate itself.



Stirling Engine

 

Introduction

The Haselhurst-Stirling engine design is a high pressure (80 atmospheres) high temperature (up to 600 degrees celsius) design. It has a theoretical efficiency of 60% at 600 C and 35% at 350 C. (Solar cells have a maximum efficiency of about 20%, diesel engines about 35%).

To begin I will simply use a fire to heat the hot side (wood has about 4kW/hrs of energy per kg, and a fire easily reaches temperatures of 600 degrees celsius).
The cold side will be cooled to around 100 degrees celsius by running water (I have a lot of ponds and creeks on my property!). If it works then in the long term I would use solar energy to heat it.

Design

I am using two petrol engines with the heads removed. The motors are connected together 90 degrees out of phase by their fly wheel. One motor becomes the cold side pistons, the other the hot side (see diagram below).
The pistons are modified so they have 10cm of cylindrical solid insulation attached to them followed by 15 cm of cylindrical metal foam (so the piston goes from being 10cm long to being 35 cm long). A 30 cm metal pipe is bolted onto the block for each cylinder such that the longer piston sits in this metal pipe. The pistons operate vertically down (motor is upside down), and the bottom of the metal pipe is filled with molten lead on the hot side and water on the cold side. As the pistons move up and down the metal foam is immersed in the liquid to displace the working gas from the hot side to the cold side.

The two petrol motors are 6 cylinder 3.9 litre 120 kW Ford Falcon motors from 1990 (yes, I live in Australia!). They cost me $40 dollars each from the local salvage yard. Each cylinder has a volume of 650cc. The two motors are connected 90 degrees out of phase by their flywheels. By connecting cylinder one of the hot engine to cylinder one of the cold engine, cylinder two of hot engine to cylinder two of cold engine, etc, we are effectively making six 650cc Stirling engines connected together by the motor's crankshaft.

Stirling Engine - about to transfer working gas to cold side

In this diagram the working gas fills the metal foam on the hot side and half fills the metal foam on the cold side.
In the next 90 degrees rotation the hot piston half immerses the metal foam into the molten lead thus the working gas will be transferred to the cold side where the metal foam is lifting out of the water and cooling the working gas (ready for the next stage - contraction of gas on the cold side).

Stirling enginge - about to transfer working gas to hot side

The Stirling engine is now rotated 180 degrees (half a turn) from the above diagram. The metal foam on the hot side is completely immersed in lead, thus all the working gas is in the cold side. In the next 90 degrees of rotation the hot metal foam will half lift out of molten lead, the cold metal foam will be completely immersed in water, thus all the working gas will be transferred to the hot side ready for expansion.

Piston extension The metal pistons are extended 25 cm by adding 10 cm of solid insulation (so no air can enter) and 15 cm of metal foam (90% air).

Power

Theoretically this design (6 by 650cc = 3.9 liters) should produce the following power;
(I have included results for air and helium as the working gas).

Pressure
(Atmospheres)
Temp
Hot C.
Temp
Cold C.
Gas Theoretical
Efficiency
Power
Output
10 600 100 Air 60% 3 kW
10 600 100 He 60% 7.2 kW
20 600 100 Air 60% 7.5 kW
20 600 100 He 60% 17 kW
40 600 100 Air 60% 17 kW
40 600 100 He 60% 38 kW
60 600 100 Air 60% 27 kW
60 600 100 He 60% 60kW

Power for Low Temperature
(350 Degrees Celsius)
10 350 100 Air 35% 2 kW
10 350 100 He 35% 4 kW
20 350 100 Air 35% 4 kW
20 350 100 He 35% 6 kW
40 350 100 Air 35% 10 kW
40 350 100 He 35% 20 kW
60 350 100 Air 35% 16 kW
60 350 100 He 35% 35 kW

See: Stirling Engine Performance Calculator

Cost

The total cost should be about $2,000 Australian including steel and welding.
For a comparison, the WhisperGen Stirling engine costs $20,000 dollars and is 1kW.

Below are some further details (from my provisional patent application).

The Haselhurst-Stirling Engine

Stirling Engines are theoretically the most efficient heat engines available, where the efficiency is 1 - Tmin/Tmax (in degrees kelvin). Thus the engines are more efficient the greater the temperature difference from the hot side to the cold side.

However, in the past it has been difficult to overcome design problems relating to the required rapid flow of heat energy in the hot and cold pistons, sealing the system at high pressure, and building the motor at a cost efficient price.

The Haselhurst-Stirling engine overcomes these problems by using two petrol engines connected 90 degrees out of phase. One motor is on the hot side, the other motor is on the cold side.
The head and sump of both motors are removed so that we have the block, pistons and crankshaft only. The bore for each piston (90mm) is then connected to the same diameter pipe (heating / cooling pipes) that are 30 cm long and bolt onto the block. The heating and cooling pipes are then connected by a 25mm pipe for each respective cylinder which connect the hot and cold pistons via the regenerator (filled with copper wire to act as heat storage).

The 30 cm heating / cooling pipes are half filled with lead on the hot side and water on the cold side. The working gas is pressurized air or helium.

The pistons have been lengthened by adding 10cm of solid insulation (no air can get into this volume) and 15 cm of cylindrical metal foam (90% porous / air)

When the crankshafts are rotated the piston's metal foam is successively immersed and removed from the liquid at the bottom of the heating and cooling pipes causing the working gas to be moved from the hot side to the cold side and back again. In one complete cycle the hot gas expands and does work, then it is transferred to the cold side where it contracts and does work, then it is transferred back to the hot side to complete the cycle.

This is an animated diagram of the standard Alpha Stirling Engine cycle.

Animated Alpha Stirling Engine


Advantages of the Haselhurst-Stirling Engine

1. By using existing technology of petrol engines we are able to build cheap efficient Stirling engines with high quality engineering and high power output.

2. By using two 6 cylinder petrol / diesel engines connected 90 degrees out of phase we are effectively building 6 stirling engines, each with a volume of 650cc, connected by the motor's crankshaft.

3. By removing the head and extending the pistons with the 30cm heating cooling pipes (with similar ID) we get the further advantages of;

3.1 Increasing heat transfer (much greater surface area).

3.2 We move the heat source away from the block / piston thus extending the working life of the motor.

4. By using one way ball valves to direct the flow of the working gas into liquid (so it bubbles through molten lead / copper on the hot side, water / copper on the cold side) we can further significantly improve the surface area and heat transfer to the working gas.

5.Because this is an external combustion engine it can use any heat source, including the sun, thus producing a carbon / pollution free energy supply.
(Though this is true of all Stirling engines, it is important to state!)


Physics Calculations: Stirling Engine Heat Flow

Ultimately the success of a Stirling engine depends on getting heat in and out of the working gas quickly!

Below are my calculations (please correct any errors!).

They are based on a 3.9 liter, 10kW air machine (20 kW if He is used), temperature = 350 degrees Celsius at 40 Atmospheres Pressure.

Substance Thermal Conductivity
W/mC
Specific Heat
J/gC
Density
g/cc
Viscosity
Aluminum 143 to 237 .795 2.8  
Al. Foam 5   0.28  
Copper 287 .376 8.8  
Cu Foam 10 .027 0.6  
Brass 110 .37 8.8  
Lead 35 .13 11.3 .17M^2/s
Woods Metal     9.5 KV = .341 mm2/s
Carbon Steel 50 .5 7.8 1.5 cP
Silver        
Water .58 4.2 1 1 cP
Oil .15 2.0   100-1000 cP
Air / Nitrogen .024 1.04 1.25g/l 1cP
Helium .15 5.2 .178g/l  
Air bubble 10mm 4,000      

Note: Conductivity Foam (solid ligaments) = Conductivity of solid × relative density × .33. Thus for Aluminum
where thermal conductivity = 143 W/mc, then thermal conductivity of 10% foam should be: 143/30, about 5 W/mc
Kinematic viscosity (M^2 / s) = Dynamic Viscosity / density

How much heat do we need?

H (joules) = mass by C by Specific Heat

For our Stirling engine, combining all six cylinders we have:

3.9 liters by 40 atmospheres = 156 liters, where density of Nitrogen = 1.25g/litre
So nitrogen has a mass of 195 grams.

Assume motor turns at 5 rps (300RPM)

Thus we need to heat 5 * 195 = 975 grams of nitrogen to be raised 250 degrees C each second.

Power in Joules/second = 975 grams times 250c times 1.04 = 250,000 Joules/s = 250kW

** This number seems high to me given we are working on a 10 to 20 kW machine assuming around 35% efficiency! I assume machine outputs are realistically based on the fact that you never heat or cool your gas completely.

Heat Conduction

So we need to get 250kW of heat energy H into the gas each second, where;

H = kA (T2 - T1)/L (joules/second) and k = thermal conductivity (J/smC = W/mC)

Below we will look at the three main areas of heat flow.
1. Through the 100mm diameter carbon pipe by 10mm wall thickness.
2. From the molten lead into the metal foam.
3. From the metal foam into the working gas (air / nitrogen or Helium).

1. Through the 100mm diameter carbon pipe by 10mm wall thickness.

Our total surface area is 6 times the surface area of each 100mm diameter heating pipe at 25 cm length. Thus total Surface Area = 5,000 cm^2 for the 6 heating pipes.

Heat flow through 1cm carbon steel = 50 by 0.5m^2 by 250c / 0.01m = 625kW

Which equates to 125W/cm^2.

From the above it seems that we can get 2.5 times more heat energy in to the heating cylinder though the 10mm carbon steel wall than is required.

So now we need to consider the heat flow into and out of the metal foam;

2. The heat flow from the molten lead into the metal foam

(When the metal foam piston is immersed in the liquid metal - the working gas is in the metal foam on the cold side).

We have approximately 1 litre of lead and 1 litre of metal foam in each of our 6 heating pipes (15 cm by 10 cm diameter), so there is ample lead to heat the metal foam. If we assume that each cc of metal foam has a surface area of 10cm^2 then 6,000 cc of metal foam = 60,000 cm^2 surface area. Finally, I will assume an average thickness of 0.1 cm for the metal foam, thus

H = 5 by 6 m^2 by 250 C by 1000 = 7,500 kJ (ten times more than we need, and this is consistent with the high surface area and heat flow characteristics of metal foam.)

3. The heat flow from the metal foam to the working gas

(When the piston / metal foam is lifted from the molten lead - the working gas is being moved back into the metal foam in the hot cylinder).

Again we will use the same surface area and assume a gas length of 3 times the average of the metal foam structure thus 3 mm.

H = 0.024 by 6 m^2 by 250 C by 333 = 12,000J = 12 kJ each second = 12kW.

So from the above we see that the limiting heat flow is from the metal foam to the working gas (as expected, heat flow through gas is low).

However;

1. Helium has 7 times the thermal conductivity of air / Nitrogen which would increase the heat transfer to 84kW which is about right for our proposed 20kW machine running with Helium as its working gas at 40 Atm and 350 degrees (thus about 35% efficiency).

2. The liquid lead will form spherical droplets on the metal foam surface that will further increase heat flow from the metal foam to the working gas.

From the above it seems that the required heat flow for our 10 kW (air) or 20 kW (He) Stirling engine is theoretically possible.

But have I made any errors or forgotten to include things!?

Geoff Haselhurst (23rd March, 2009)

PS - I have not included on this page how the machine will be pressurized. I have three options;

1. Enclose the 2 motors in 2 carbon seamless steel pipes each 40cm diameter by 80cm long. I have explained this with my other Stirling engine design.

2. Use the car air conditioner's compressor to collect air from sump (as it leaks past pistons) and pump it back into the machine at 40 Atmospheres. This may require using 6 gas valves and injecting the air back in during the expansion phase (you could use a low voltage modification of the ignition system to drive this.)

3. Work with Diesel engines (which handle twice the compression, thus are better) and use the fuel injectors to inject compressed air into the machine.

NOTES: For my reference.

Using copper high tensile wire (from aerial power cables).

Wire is 7 strands by .1cm diameter.

Thus area = 3.14 by .05 ^2 = 0.008 cm^2 per strand.

If I assume 30% copper wire (70% air) then I need 1.17 litres of copper = 1,170 cc of copper.

Thus 0.008 cm^2by L = 1,170 cc, so L = 146250 cm of one strand, so 20893 cm of 7 strand copper wire.

Assume each 7 strand copper wire is 20 cm long, so I need 1,044 cm of wire, thus 174 wires for each cylinder.

Surface area of wire is .314cm by length. Thus total surface area 45,922 cm^2.

So surface area of copper wire in each cylinder = 7650 cm^2 (this gives a SA / V ratio of 11.7 - similar to 5PPI Copper foam).

Thus heat transfer is (assume gas distance L is 2mm, so 1/L = 500 m);

H = 0.024 by 4.5 m^2 by 250 C by 500 = 13,500J = 13.5 kJ each second = 13.5kW.

Seems OK!!

How much Lead and Copper do we need?

Substance Thermal Conductivity
W/mC
Specific Heat
J/gC
Density
g/cc
Viscosity
cP
Aluminum 143 to 237 .795 2.8  
Al. Foam 5   0.28  
Copper 287 .376 8.8  
Cu Foam 10 .027 0.6  
Brass 110 .37 8.8  
Lead 35 .13 11.3  
Carbon Steel 50 .5 7.8 1.5 cP
Silver        
Water .58 4.2 1 1 cP
Oil .15     100-1000 cP
Air / Nitrogen .024 1.04 1.25g/l  
Helium .15 5.2 .178g/l  

At 40 Atmospheres pressure, 250C Temperature (350C hot, 100C cold)
and 5 Rev/second (300RPM).

Total of 1,000 grams of nitrogen / second. Energy = 975 grams times 250c times 1.04
= 250,000 Joules/s = 250kW

How many grams of Lead? 1.04/.13 times 975g = 8 times 975g = 7,800 grams
thus volume = 7,800/11.3 = 690cc, thus 115cc for each cylinder.

How many grams of Copper? 1.04/.376 times 975g = 2.76 times 975g = 2,700 grams
thus volume = 2,700/8.8 = 306cc, thus 50cc for each cylinder.

In each 20 cm of 100mm (1.2litres) heating / cooling cylinder we have;

50% Lead, thus 600cc = nearly 6 times required amount. Thus lead would only drop 50 degrees C for air to rise 300 degrees C.

50% copper, thus 600cc = nearly 12 times required amount. (Need about 200 wires per cylinder!)
Thus copper would only drop 25 degrees to air, but would also lose heat to Lead. And as heat flow through copper is 5 times faster most heat would come from copper.

How much Copper do we need in Regenerator?

Assume 25mm ID pipe, A=5cm^2. Length on hot side is 20cm, thus volume = 100cc.

If 50% full of copper then 50cc of copper (equal to required), 50cc of air (2.5cm^2).

IF we use 100mm pipe then A = 60cm^2.

If we use 50mm pipe then A = 20cm^2.
So 5cm = 100cc at 80% copper, air 20cc (4cm^2).
Or 10cm = 200cc at 80% copper (160cc = 3 times heat energy) and 40cc air (6% cylinder volume)

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